PARTS OF A SHIP

Front (Bow) Area Bulbous Bow A rounded projection located below the waterline at the forward part of the hull. It reduces wave resistance and helps improve the ship’s fuel efficiency and stability. Bow The forward-most section of the ship designed to cut through the water as the vessel moves. Stem The vertical front edge of the bow that forms the main support where the two sides of the hull meet. Foredeck The deck area located at the forward part of the ship, often used for anchor handling and mooring operations. Fore Mast A mast positioned near the bow used to mount lights, radar, antennas, and other navigational instruments. Hatch Cover A watertight cover placed over cargo holds to protect the cargo from seawater and weather exposure. Deck The main working platform of the ship where crew activities and operations take place. Hull The main outer structure or body of the ship that provides buoyancy and keeps the vessel afloat. Anchor A heavy device lowered to the seabed to hold the ship in position and prevent drifting. Bridge The command center of the ship where navigation, control, and monitoring of vessel movement and operations are performed. Midship and Superstructure Superstructure The portion of the ship constructed above the main deck, housing key operational and living spaces. Accommodation The area where the crew lives and works. It includes cabins, mess rooms, offices, and other essential living facilities. Flying Bridge / Bridge Wings Side platforms extending from the bridge used for maneuvering and observation, especially during docking and unmooring. Monkey Island An open platform located above the bridge that provides access to radar, communication, and navigation equipment, as well as offering an unobstructed view of the surroundings. Main Mast The primary mast supporting communication systems, navigation lights, and other electronic devices.

2-Stroke Marine Diesel Engine

2- STROKE MARINE DIESEL ENGINE A 2-stroke marine diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes all four stages of operation intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust in two piston strokes (one crankshaft revolution). It is primarily used in large ships such as tankers, container vessels, and bulk carriers because of its high power output, fuel efficiency, and ability to run continuously for long periods. The engine is designed to deliver maximum torque at low revolutions per minute (RPM), making it ideal for direct propulsion of heavy marine vessels. Purpose The main purpose of a 2-stroke marine diesel engine is to generate continuous propulsion power for ships during long-distance voyages. It provides high torque and efficiency at low speed, enabling vessels to move massive loads across oceans while minimizing fuel consumption. Its robust design, long service life, and ability to operate on different fuel types from heavy fuel oil (HFO) to marine diesel oil (MDO) make it the backbone of commercial marine propulsion. Background and History The concept of the 2-stroke engine emerged in the late 19th century, pioneered by Dugald Clerk (1878) and Joseph Day (1891). In the early 20th century, diesel technology replaced steam propulsion as shipping demanded greater efficiency. By the 1930s, manufacturers like Sulzer, MAN B&W, and Mitsubishi developed large-scale crosshead-type 2-stroke engines, setting the standard for ocean-going ships. Since the 1960s, these engines have dominated maritime transport, evolving to meet stricter emission and fuel efficiency standards. Main Components and Functions • Cylinder Liner : Forms the combustion chamber’s wall and withstands high pressure and temperature. • Piston & Rings : Convert combustion energy to motion and maintain sealing between piston and liner. • Connecting Rod & Crankshaft : Transfer and convert linear motion into rotary motion for propulsion. • Crosshead Bearing : Separates the piston and connecting rod to prevent side forces. • Scavenge Air System : Supplies fresh air for combustion and removes exhaust gases. • Turbocharger : Utilizes exhaust gas energy to compress intake air for better combustion. • Fuel Injector : Sprays atomized fuel into the combustion chamber for ignition. • Exhaust Valve : Opens to release burnt gases. • Cooling and Lubrication Systems : Control temperature and minimize wear.

UNCLOS WATERS

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) stands as one of the most important international agreements in maritime history, providing a comprehensive framework that governs the rights, responsibilities, and conduct of nations in their use of the world’s oceans. Adopted in 1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica, and entered into force in 1994, UNCLOS has since become the “constitution of the oceans,” shaping the global maritime order and ensuring stability in international waters. Today, more than 160 countries, including the Philippines, are parties to this convention, making it one of the most widely recognized treaties in modern international law. At its core, UNCLOS defines the extent of maritime zones, granting coastal states sovereign rights and jurisdiction over certain areas of the seas while maintaining the principle of freedom of navigation. The convention establishes baseline measurements from which maritime zones are determined, ranging from internal waters, territorial seas, and contiguous zones, to exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and continental shelves. These zones outline the rights of coastal states to exploit resources, regulate activities, and protect their environment, while balancing the rights of other states to access international waters. The territorial sea, extending up to 12 nautical miles from the baseline, grants full sovereignty to coastal states, similar to their land territory, albeit with the obligation to allow innocent passage for foreign vessels. Beyond this lies the contiguous zone, extending up to 24 nautical miles, where states can enforce customs, fiscal, and immigration regulations. However, it is the 200-nautical-mile Exclusive Economic Zone that has arguably had the most profound impact, as it allows coastal states exclusive rights to exploit and manage natural resources, including fisheries and energy reserves. UNCLOS also addresses the rights of landlocked states by ensuring access to the seas through transit routes and cooperation with neighboring states. By codifying these provisions, the convention promotes equity among nations and prevents maritime access from becoming a privilege limited only to coastal countries. Furthermore, it establishes rules on the exploitation of the deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction, declaring it the “common heritage of mankind” and mandating that its resources be managed for the benefit of all humanity. An important element of UNCLOS is its contribution to environmental protection. The convention obligates states to prevent, reduce, and control pollution of the marine environment, whether from ships, land-based sources, or dumping. It also encourages cooperation in scientific research, preservation of rare ecosystems, and sustainable use of marine living resources. These provisions reflect the recognition that the oceans are interconnected and that environmental harm in one region can have ripple effects across the globe. UNCLOS has also proven essential in resolving disputes among states. It provides mechanisms for peaceful settlement through negotiation, arbitration, or adjudication by bodies such as the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). These mechanisms ensure that maritime disputes, whether over boundary delimitations or navigational rights, are settled according to international law rather than unilateral action or force, thereby reducing the risk of conflict. The convention further enshrines the principle of freedom of navigation and overflight, vital for global trade and security. Given that around 90% of world trade is transported by sea, these provisions protect the lifeblood of the global economy. Naval operations, commercial shipping, and international aviation all rely on the stability and predictability created by UNCLOS, underscoring its role not only as a legal framework but also as a safeguard of global commerce. Over time, UNCLOS has adapted to contemporary challenges. Issues such as maritime security, piracy, illegal fishing, and marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction have required new interpretations and agreements supplementary to the convention. Despite criticisms that it cannot fully address emerging issues like climate change and rising sea levels, its framework remains the backbone of modern maritime governance. For countries like the Philippines, UNCLOS is particularly significant, as it provides the legal basis for asserting rights over maritime zones and resources. The 2016 arbitral ruling on the South China Sea dispute, rooted in UNCLOS provisions, reinforced the importance of the convention as a peaceful tool for resolving maritime conflicts, affirming that international law remains the strongest shield of smaller states against larger powers. In sum, UNCLOS has become indispensable in maintaining order in the world’s oceans. It balances the interests of coastal and landlocked states, safeguards navigation rights, promot

SOLAS CONVENTION: LATEST UPDATES

The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) is recognized as the cornerstone of international maritime safety law. Originally adopted in 1914 following the tragic loss of the RMS Titanic, it has since been revised several times to keep pace with technological and operational advances in shipping. The 1974 SOLAS Convention, which came into force in 1980, introduced the “tacit acceptance” procedure, allowing amendments to automatically enter into force on a specified date unless objected to by a certain number of member states. This system ensures SOLAS remains a dynamic, living instrument capable of adapting quickly to new safety concerns. SOLAS establishes uniform minimum safety standards in the design, construction, equipment, and operation of merchant ships. All ships engaged in international voyages must comply, subject to inspections and certification by their flag state administrations, as well as verification by port state control officers when calling at foreign ports. The Convention also incorporates mandatory codes such as the ISM Code, ISPS Code, Polar Code, and HSC Code, ensuring comprehensive safety measures. The treaty has grown into a holistic framework addressing every aspect of ship safety, including fire prevention, life-saving appliances, safe navigation, carriage of cargoes, maritime security, and the safe management of shipping companies. Its reach extends from traditional merchant vessels to modern high-speed craft, bulk carriers, and ships operating in polar waters. The most updated structure of the SOLAS Convention includes the following chapters: Chapter I – General Provisions: Survey, certification, and enforcement. Chapter II-1 – Construction – Structure, Subdivision, and Stability, Machinery and Electrical Installations: Integrity of ship structure and machinery. Chapter II-2 – Fire Protection, Fire Detection, and Fire Extinction: Fire safety systems, training, and response. Chapter III – Life-Saving Appliances and Arrangements: Lifeboats, life rafts, survival suits, and muster arrangements. Chapter IV – Radiocommunications: GMDSS and distress alert systems. Chapter V – Safety of Navigation: Voyage planning, navigational warnings, and mandatory equipment like ECDIS and AIS. Chapter VI – Carriage of Cargoes: Loading, stowage, and securing of general cargoes. Chapter VII – Carriage of Dangerous Goods: IMDG Code compliance and hazardous cargo provisions. Chapter VIII – Nuclear Ships: Special safety arrangements for nuclear-powered ships. Chapter IX – Management for the Safe Operation of Ships (ISM Code): Safety management systems and company responsibility. Chapter X – Safety Measures for High-Speed Craft (HSC Code): Special rules for fast passenger and cargo craft. Chapter XI-1 – Special Measures to Enhance Maritime Safety: Continuous surveys, ship identification numbers, and inspection regimes. Chapter XI-2 – Special Measures to Enhance Maritime Security (ISPS Code): Ship and port facility security levels, drills, and plans. Chapter XII – Additional Safety Measures for Bulk Carriers: Structural reinforcements and safety precautions. Chapter XIII – Verification of Compliance: IMO audits of member states’ compliance. Chapter XIV – Safety Measures for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code): Safety, environmental, and crew training standards in polar regions. Chapter XV – Safety Measures for Ships Carrying Industrial Personnel: Safe design and operation of vessels carrying offshore or industrial workers. Chapter XVI – Safety Measures for the Carriage of More than 12 Industrial Personnel on International Voyages: Latest addition, providing detailed regulations for industrial transport. In 2024, several significant amendments entered into force, further strengthening the safety framework. Updates to Chapter II-1 on construction and stability enhanced watertight integrity and introduced refined methods for damage stability calculations. These improvements, particularly in Parts B-1, B-2, and B-4, applied to new vessels and modernized long-standing requirements. Fire safety also received attention, with amendments to the Fire Safety Systems (FSS) Code easing requirements for individual detector isolators, balancing safety with practical shipboard application. Changes to the Life-Saving Appliances (LSA) Code clarified standards for launching appliances, including rescue boats and free-fall lifeboats, while providing exemptions from certain dynamic testing requirements. At the same time, the International Code of Safety for Ships using Gases or Other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGF Code) was updated, reinforcing provisions on fire protection, fuel distribution, and fixed extinguishing arrangements. These changes ensured that ships using LNG and other alternative fuels maintained higher safety margins. Other 2024 amendments addressed mooring equipment, requiring de